Each of the orbs are the atoms. The brighter orbs that are nearest each other at the Praseodymium (Pr) atoms and the less prominent orbs are the Scandium (Sc) atoms. The space between is just that, the space between the atoms. They are all in a lattice pattern due to how they are attracted to each other.
Atoms are almost entirely empty space. And electrons themselves don't really occupy a specific dot in space, they're more of a blur that fuzzes out in a "large" region of space around the nucleus. So what's shown here is most likely a visualization of the area that the electrons occupy.
But I'm no physicist and i didn't read the article, so take this with a big grain of salt
EDIT
Another person here said the round things are actually the nuclei, and they sound like they know what they're talking about. So while the informational stuff i said is right, it might not actually be a description of the image we're looking at
Speciation is really a judgment call. We don't really have objective criteria that says "99% or more genetic similarity is the same species".
But that assumes that there is evolution happening in the first place. Plenty of organisms are quite happily living in the same form as they did hundreds of millions of years ago. The nautilus, for example, evolved about 500 mya, and remains largely unchanged today (though many of its siblings are extinct, and the nautilus itself is endangered). For simpler organisms, you can probably find examples much older.
Edit: forgot to answer your question directly. It could be "never".
If I could add, it's likely impossible to say, because evolution is driven by selection pressures.
If the original strain AA has descendent strains AA, AB, and AC, we can't know with any certainty which is more fit to survive, because it could be one, two, or all of them simultaneously.
I spent the last couple of years selling and eating fancy cheeses and I'd say that isn't true. Some are better melted, some I let come to room temperature long before eating and some (almost none, though) I prefer cold.
Trust me, some cheeses will turn into an oily puddle when melted.
My guess is your experience is with young, semisoft, and American cheeses?
I left to work for a non-profit a little bit ago. I seriously miss getting invited out to visit cheese, beer and wine (and whatever else local) producers. I spent my vacations just going from place to place.
My dream is to produce goat cheese, so maybe someday I'll be back in the life.
Very much depends on the cheese. Most American type cheeses? Yeah, probably. But there are so many great aged cheeses out there, which are infinitely better not melted.
Temperature affects the taste of many foods. Temperature change doesn't affect the specific basic flavours (e.g. salty, bitter, umami, sweet) in the same way. So increasing or decreasing the temperature of a food item will change its taste profile.
The source I found says that it is difficult to tell if temperature change will make a food taste "better" or "worse". It depends on too many factors.
In your case it seems that increasing the temperature of cheese makes it taste better for you. It'll probably be because you like the taste profile of melted cheese over solid cheese. Maybe try and perceive what specifically it is about the taste profile that changes for you. Maybe you perceive it as more or less salty, more or less umami.
I would think that the heat releases flavors or causes chemical processes in the cheese that produce additional aromas not present in the normal state. I have no idea and am not qualified in any way.
Doesn’t Maillard refer to the browning/toasting of foods though? I know there is some overlap like cheese browning on a pizza, but room temp cheese tastes better than cold. Genuinely curious and couldnt find any info myself
I'll see if I can find any supporting articles, but IIRC, it has to do with the fats being softer or more reactive with your taste buds at warmer temps.
I am not expert, but seems plausable. Shock comes from high voltage electric charge jumping from metal to skin. If you press it, you are part of the electric charge. If you are far away, charge cannot jump. Problem is only when you are couple of centimeters close to it. AFAIK, this is not current, but electric discharge, I think it cannot kill you (it is just very unpleasant), but maybe someone else knows better?
Thing that confuses me is that when you let go, you should have the same charge as the generator. No charge difference, no arc. Unless I'm wrong about something, which I probably am (hence my confusion).
Enough for a change in potential to cause arcing, as we can see. I'm sure you could find relevant experimental studies, or even conduct them on yourself with a proper transformer and voltmeter.
...based upon how my elementary school teachers used to grade assignments, great is just above excellent, so they'll diminish to excellent lakes first, then good lakes, then typical lakes...
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